1.9, 1.10, Presentation: Written and Oral Argumentation

Notes taken from ‘Argumentation: Analysis, Evaluation, Presentation’, by Frans van Eemeren et al.

Written Argumentation
Reasonableness: Such an argument contains nothing that would, by definition, form an obstacle to the resolution of a difference of opinion… The argumentation must convince readers by removing their doubts or by responding to their criticisms.

Comprehensible: The various parts of the argumentative text should be put together coherently. The use of language (and the standpoint and arguments themselves) should be as clear and understandable as possible… This does not necessarily mean the standpoint and arguments should be formulated explicitly – that would be unnatural and irritating... A well-presented argument will have a good balance of explicit and implicit elements.

… A series of statements and claims can be livened up considerably by throwing in an occasional rhetorical question, an exclamation, or some expression of feeling…

Analytical Overview: Can be a useful tool when rewriting the text or even when writing the first draft. It brings together concisely all the information necessary for evaluating an argumentative text, that is, what is the difference of opinion to be resolved, what is the structure of the argumentation, and so on. It can be used to check whether the argumentation is sound (i.e. whether it can stand up to criticism)…

Oral Argumentation
… Good preparation will enable you to be flexible in responding to the other party:
- Be well prepared…
- Anticipate what position the other party will probably take and what their background in the subject matter is…

… Sometimes, rather than waiting for your opponent, you can just as well present the objection yourself and counter it: “Of course I am aware that… but…”

Use of language: To prevent misunderstandings, both parties must express their intentions as clearly as possible and interpret the opponent’s statements as accurately as possible…

Precization: Considering various possible interpretations of a statement and then choosing one of them… To ensure that they are both talking about the same thing, the participants may assign definitions to the main terms relevant to the discussion…

… To ensure the discussion proceeds in an orderly manner, the participants need to observe a number of important rules, including the following:
1. Each point raised in the discussion must be relevant to the matter at hand at that moment…
2. It is best to avoid making too many points at once…
3. The function of each contribution must be clear…
4. Participants should not draw out the discussion by unnecessary repetition or by bringing up points that have already been dealt with.
5. The discussion must be brought to a clear conclusion…

… When defending one’s own standpoint it is advisable to give the strongest arguments either right at the beginning or at the end. What comes first will influence the reception of the rest, and what comes last will be remembered the best…

... The conclusion of a speech should plant the most important points firmly in the minds of the audience. No new points should be brought up at this time, nor should the complete argument be repeated. It is important that the conclusion be clear and attractive…

… Some tips for a good presentation are:
- Announce no more than what you are going to do…
- Avoid giving the impression that you are not well prepared or are indifferent to the subject…
- Keep the sentences short…
- Use the passive form sparingly…
- Illustrate abstract ideas or generalisations with concrete examples…
- Instead of ending your speech suddenly, make sure you have a clearly identifiable conclusion…