1.6, Evaluation: The Soundness of Argumentation

Notes taken from ‘Argumentation: Analysis, Evaluation, Presentation’, by Frans van Eemeren et al.

1, Evaluating Argumentative Discourse
Defective Argumentative Discourse: Due to contradictions in the argument as a whole, or individual arguments may be unacceptable or otherwise flawed.
Unacceptability of a Part of the Argumentation: Different consequences for the different types of argumentation (i.e. multiple, coordinative, subordinative).
Assessing the Soundness of Argumentation: All complex argumentation must be broken down into single arguments, each of which must be assessed. It is advisable, however, not to proceed to the assessment of the individual arguments before determining whether the argumentation as a whole is consistent.
Logical Inconsistency: When statements are made that, because they contradict each other cannot possibly both be true.
Pragmatic Inconsistency: When argumentation contains two statements that, although not logically inconsistent, have consequences in the real world that are contradictory.
Soundness of a Single Argument: The argument must be judged according to the degree to which it justifies (or refutes) the proposition to which the standpoint refers. To be considered sound, it must meet three requirements:
i, Each of the statements that make up the argument must be acceptable;
ii, the reasoning underlying the argument must be valid;
iii, the “argument scheme” employed must be appropriate and correctly used.

2, the Acceptability of Argumentative Statements
There are statements whose acceptability can be established with no problem. Examples of these are factual statements whose truth can be verified. The acceptability of nonfactual statements can also sometimes be agreed on quickly, for instance, when they concern commonplace values or judgements (e.g. “Parents should take care of their children”). Of course, in many other instances it is very difficult to agree on the acceptability of a statement, particularly if it involves a complex matter or is strongly tied to particular values and norms (e.g. “Reading is (not) the best way to improve your language skills”). If such statements are not supported by further argumentation, the speaker’s argumentation as a whole may not be accepted as an adequate defence (or refutation) of the standpoint.

3, the Validity of the Reasoning
There is only one situation in which a single argument cannot be reconstructed as being based on valid reasoning, and that is if invalid reasoning is put forward explicitly. Reasoning that is incomplete can almost always be completed in a way that renders it logically valid. If a premise has been left unexpressed, the solution is simply to add to the argument the appropriate “if… then…” statement. However odd the resulting statement may be, the reasoning is valid.
Modus Ponens: (1) “If A, then B”, (2) “A”, therefore (3) “B”.
Modus Tollens: (1) “If A, then B”, (2) “Not B”, therefore (3) “Not A”.

4, the Use of Argument Schemes
Argument Scheme: Links the arguments and the standpoint being defended in a specific way. May or may not be done correctly.
Types of Argumentation: Three different types characterised by three main categories of argument schemes: symptomatic, analytic and causal.
Critical Questions: Asked to determine whether a given argument meets the criteria relevant to that type of argumentation.

5, Argumentation Based on a Symptomatic Relation
General argument scheme: “Y is true of X”, because “Z is true of X”, and “Z is symptomatic of Y”.
Critical Questions: “Aren’t there also other non-Y’s that have the characteristic Z?” “Aren’t there also other Y’s that do not have the characteristic Z?”

6, Argumentation Based on a Relation of Analogy
General argument scheme: “Y is true of X”, because “Y is true of Z”, and “Z is comparable to X”.
Critical Questions: “Are there any significant differences between Z and X?”

7, Argumentation Based on a Causal Relation
General argument scheme: “Y is true of X”, because “Z is true of X”, and “Z leads to Y”.
Critical Questions: “Does Z always lead to Y?”

8, the Presentation of Different Types of Argumentation
… Sometimes it is easy to determine the type of argumentation because of the presence of certain expressions that indicate what the relation is between the argument and the standpoint…
Signs of a Symptomatic Relation: “It is characteristic of adolescents that they are rebellious”, “It is typical of…”, “It is natural for…”, “Adolescents are rebellious” etc.
Signs of an Analytic Relation: “The movement towards democracy of the 1960s is like the French revolution”, “… is comparable to…”, “… is similar to…”, “… corresponds to…”, “… is related to…”, “… is reminiscent of…”
Signs of a Causal Relation: “Drinking a whole bottle of whiskey has the inevitable result that you get drunk”, “… leads to…”, “You always get drunk from…”, “… can’t help but make you…”